Cambridge IGCSE · Biology 0610
Compare plant, animal and bacterial cells, connect each named structure to its function, explain that new cells arise by division of existing cells, relate seven named specialised cell types to their roles, and organise biological examples from cells to multicellular organisms. This original practice pack is limited to Cambridge IGCSE Biology 0610 section 2.1. Magnification, specimen-size calculations, movement across membranes, detailed cell-division mechanisms and later physiology are excluded.
2026 / 2027 / 2028 · Academic review not recorded · Published 2026-09-08
AI-assisted practice — not independently academically reviewed. Answers may contain errors; check important results against your course materials.
Guided tutorial
19 lesson sections
Explanation
A cell is the basic structural and functional unit of a living organism. Plant and animal cells both have a cell membrane, cytoplasm, ribosomes, mitochondria and a nucleus. These shared structures support essential activities: the membrane forms a controlled boundary, reactions occur in the cytoplasm, ribosomes make proteins, mitochondria are the site of aerobic respiration, and the nucleus contains genetic material and controls cell activities.
Cell types are compared by checking each named structure rather than by relying on overall shape. A written description can provide all necessary evidence. For example, a cell with a nucleus and mitochondria could be plant or animal; chloroplasts, a cellulose cell wall and a large permanent vacuole provide stronger evidence for a typical plant cell. Not every plant cell contains chloroplasts, so their absence alone does not prove that a cell is animal.
Explanation
The cell membrane controls the movement of substances into and out of the cell. Cytoplasm is the material where many chemical reactions occur. Ribosomes are the syllabus-listed sites of protein synthesis, while mitochondria are the sites of aerobic respiration. The nucleus contains genetic material and controls the activities of a plant or animal cell. For syllabus questions, keep these principal structure–function matches distinct rather than swapping ribosomes with mitochondria or the nucleus.
In a plant cell, the cellulose cell wall supports the cell and helps it keep its shape. Chloroplasts contain chlorophyll and are sites of photosynthesis. A large permanent vacuole contains cell sap and can help support the cell when filled with water. The membrane and wall should not be confused: the membrane controls movement of substances, whereas the wall provides support and is outside the membrane.
Worked example
An unknown cell is described as having a nucleus, cytoplasm, ribosomes, mitochondria, a cell membrane, a cellulose wall, chloroplasts and a large permanent vacuole. The decisive evidence is the combination of cellulose wall, chloroplasts and large permanent vacuole. Therefore, the unknown is a plant cell. The nucleus and mitochondria do not decide the comparison because animal cells also contain them.
A complete answer should name the cell type and cite discriminating evidence. Saying only that the cell has a wall is weaker because bacterial cells also have walls, although their walls are not cellulose. Saying only that it has a nucleus rules out a bacterium in this comparison but does not separate plant from animal. No picture is needed because every observed structure is stated in the description.
Explanation
A typical photosynthesising plant cell contains all the shared plant-and-animal structures plus a cellulose cell wall, chloroplasts and a large permanent vacuole. The wall resists changes in shape and supports the cell. Chloroplasts absorb light using chlorophyll and carry out photosynthesis. Cell sap fills the vacuole, and water in the vacuole can press the cell contents against the wall, contributing to support.
Descriptions must allow natural variation. Root cells are plant cells but usually do not contain chloroplasts because they are not normally exposed to light. A plant cell may therefore be identified by a cellulose wall and large permanent vacuole even when chloroplasts are absent. Avoid the false rule that every plant cell has every structure at all times.
Worked example
Cell P has a membrane, cytoplasm, ribosomes, mitochondria and a nucleus. Cell Q has all five of those structures plus a cellulose wall, chloroplasts and a large permanent vacuole. Both cells can make proteins at ribosomes and carry out aerobic respiration in mitochondria. Q is a plant cell because of its additional plant structures; P is consistent with an animal cell because those plant structures are absent.
The comparison uses paired statements: both have a membrane, but only Q has a cellulose wall; both have cytoplasm, but only Q has chloroplasts and a large permanent vacuole. This is more precise than listing the cells separately. The evidence does not support a claim that P cannot respire or make proteins, because its mitochondria and ribosomes are explicitly present.
Explanation
An animal cell has a cell membrane but no cellulose cell wall. It can change shape more readily than a walled plant cell, although its exact shape depends on its specialised role. Animal cells do not contain chloroplasts and do not photosynthesise. They commonly contain small temporary vacuoles, but not the large permanent cell-sap vacuole characteristic of many plant cells.
Animal cells still contain cytoplasm, ribosomes, mitochondria and usually a nucleus. The word usually matters because a mature red blood cell is a specialised exception and has no nucleus. In general comparison questions, use the structures stated in the evidence and avoid turning a typical pattern into an absolute claim about every cell.
Explanation
A bacterial cell has a cell wall, cell membrane, cytoplasm and ribosomes. Its main genetic material is a loop of circular DNA lying free in the cytoplasm rather than enclosed in a nucleus. Some bacteria also contain plasmids, which are small circular DNA molecules. Bacteria do not have a nucleus, mitochondria or chloroplasts.
A bacterial wall should not be described as a cellulose plant wall. A bacterium can be distinguished from a plant cell by circular DNA free in the cytoplasm and the absence of a nucleus. It can be distinguished from an animal cell by its wall and circular DNA arrangement. Ribosomes are not unique to bacteria: plant and animal cells also use ribosomes to make proteins.
Worked example
Cell R is described as very small and containing a wall, membrane, cytoplasm, ribosomes, one loop of circular DNA and two plasmids. No nucleus or mitochondria are present. R is bacterial. The strongest evidence is the circular DNA free in the cytoplasm, possible plasmids and absence of a nucleus, not simply the fact that it has a wall.
The functions can also be assigned: its membrane controls movement into and out of the cell; ribosomes make proteins; the circular DNA carries genetic information; and plasmids carry additional small amounts of genetic information. The description is complete enough to answer without assuming a scale bar, stain colour or diagram.
Explanation
One structure can occur in several cell types. Cell membranes, cytoplasm and ribosomes occur in plant, animal and bacterial cells. Walls occur in plants and bacteria, although their composition differs. A nucleus identifies a plant or animal cell rather than a bacterial cell, but more evidence is needed to choose between plant and animal. Chloroplasts are strong plant evidence when present.
A reliable identification follows three steps: record what is present, record any explicitly absent decisive structures, and compare the whole combination with each candidate cell type. Do not infer an absent structure merely because a description does not mention it unless the question states that the list is complete. In this pack, identification questions explicitly say when a description is complete.
Worked example
Researchers isolate three cell components. Component A is where labelled amino acids are joined into proteins. Component B releases usable energy during aerobic respiration. Component C contains most of the genetic material and influences cell activities. The evidence identifies A as ribosomes, B as mitochondria and C as the nucleus.
The matching depends on function, not appearance. Protein synthesis points to ribosomes; aerobic respiration points to mitochondria; genetic material and overall control point to the nucleus. The setup states what was measured, so no unmentioned stain or image is required. A chloroplast would instead be identified by evidence of photosynthesis, while cytoplasm would be linked with many chemical reactions.
Explanation
New cells are produced by the division of existing cells. This principle applies during growth, repair and replacement, although the detailed stages and chromosome behaviour are outside this pack. A parent cell divides to produce new cells; cells do not appear from non-living material. The statement describes the source of new cells without requiring a detailed mechanism.
Simple number examples must state their assumptions. If every cell divides once in a round and each division produces two surviving cells, the population doubles in that round. Real cell populations may not behave so neatly because cells may divide at different times or die. A calculation is valid only when the question explicitly fixes these conditions.
Worked example
A culture starts with 3 cells. In each of two rounds, every cell divides once to produce two surviving cells, and no cell dies. After round 1 there are 3 × 2 = 6 cells. After round 2 there are 6 × 2 = 12 cells. Equivalently, 3 × 2² = 12. The answer is 12 cells.
The assumptions are part of the calculation: all cells divide exactly once per round, each produces two surviving cells, and none dies. Without those statements, 12 would not be justified. The arithmetic supports only the syllabus statement that existing cells produce new cells; it does not introduce the detailed phases of cell division.
Explanation
Ciliated cells line parts of the trachea and bronchi. Their cilia beat to move mucus, carrying trapped particles away from the lungs. The cell's named role is movement of mucus, not making mucus. Root hair cells are found near root surfaces and absorb water and mineral ions from the soil. Their extension provides a large surface area for absorption.
Both are specialised cells, meaning their structures suit specific functions. Their roles should not be swapped: ciliated cells do not absorb soil water, and root hair cells do not conduct electrical impulses. Detailed mechanisms of osmosis and active transport belong to later syllabus sections and are not required here.
Worked example
Sample S is taken from a bronchus and has many hair-like projections that beat together. Sample T is taken from a young root and each cell has a long projection extending between soil particles. S is a group of ciliated cells specialised to move mucus in the bronchus. T contains root hair cells specialised for absorption from the soil.
Location and role agree in both identifications. The projections may look superficially similar in words, but they serve different functions: coordinated beating moves mucus, whereas the root hair extension increases contact with the soil for absorption. The evidence is fully stated and does not rely on a missing micrograph.
Explanation
Palisade mesophyll cells are found in leaves and are specialised for photosynthesis. They contain many chloroplasts, helping them absorb light. Red blood cells are specialised to transport oxygen. Their haemoglobin binds oxygen, and their biconcave shape gives a large surface area relative to volume; mature mammalian red blood cells also lack a nucleus, leaving more space for haemoglobin.
These are different forms of specialisation. Palisade cells retain the plant structures needed for photosynthesis, while red blood cells have features that support oxygen transport. The syllabus-level function is the key: photosynthesis for palisade mesophyll cells and transport of oxygen for red blood cells.
Worked example
Cell U comes from the upper part of a leaf and contains many chloroplasts. Cell V circulates in blood, contains haemoglobin and has a biconcave shape. U is a palisade mesophyll cell: its many chloroplasts support photosynthesis. V is a red blood cell: haemoglobin and its shape support transport of oxygen.
A strong explanation links one stated feature to the correct function. It does not claim that chloroplasts transport oxygen or that haemoglobin carries out photosynthesis. Because the locations, structures and functions are included in the description, the conclusion is independent of any unseen illustration.
Explanation
Neurones are specialised to conduct electrical impulses through the body. Their long extensions allow communication over distances, and connections enable impulses to pass through networks. This topic requires the function of conducting electrical impulses; the detailed operation of synapses and nervous coordination is taught later.
Sperm and egg cells are gametes specialised for reproduction. A sperm cell can swim using its tail and carries genetic material from the male parent. An egg cell carries genetic material from the female parent and contains cytoplasm with resources for the early stages after fertilisation. Detailed fertilisation, reproductive anatomy and development lie outside this pack.
Worked example
Cell W has a very long extension and conducts an electrical impulse from a receptor toward the central nervous system. It is a neurone. Cell X has a tail, can swim and carries one parent's genetic material toward an egg. It is a sperm cell. Cell Y is a large gamete containing the other parent's genetic material and cytoplasm. It is an egg cell.
Each conclusion follows from explicit evidence. Electrical impulse conduction distinguishes W; movement toward an egg distinguishes X; and the large female gamete description distinguishes Y. The common category for X and Y is gametes, and their shared syllabus role is reproduction. No claim is made about detailed impulse transmission or stages of fertilisation.
Explanation
A tissue is a group of cells with similar structures working together to perform a shared function. An organ is a structure made of different tissues working together for particular functions. An organ system is a group of organs working together. In a multicellular organism such as a human, organ systems work together as parts of the whole organism, giving the order cell → tissue → organ → organ system → organism. A unicellular organism consists of one cell and does not contain tissues, organs or organ systems.
For example, a muscle cell can be part of muscle tissue; muscle tissue and other tissues form the stomach; the stomach works with other organs in the digestive system; and the digestive system is part of a human organism. Each level contains or coordinates the level before it. One cell is not a tissue, and one tissue alone is not an organ because an organ contains different tissues.
Work at your own pace
Question 1 of 24
Use the combination of cellulose wall, chloroplasts and large permanent vacuole.
Quick recall
Card 1 of 14
Front
Review the essentials
For cell identification, first decide whether a nucleus is present, then check for a cellulose wall, chloroplasts, a large permanent vacuole, circular DNA or plasmids. Use a combination of evidence and state why it separates the candidates. For functions, keep the pairs exact: membrane–controlled movement, ribosome–protein synthesis, mitochondrion–aerobic respiration, chloroplast–photosynthesis, nucleus–genetic material and control, and wall–support.
For specialised cells, recall the seven named cell types and their roles: ciliated cell–movement of mucus; root hair cell–absorption; palisade mesophyll cell–photosynthesis; neurone–electrical impulse conduction; red blood cell–oxygen transport; sperm cell and egg cell–reproduction. For multicellular examples, test the order cell, tissue, organ, organ system, organism and justify each step using the definition rather than size alone.
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Original practice, not an official examination paper. Readnary is not affiliated with the awarding body. Prepared with AI assistance.